Powder for achieving hemostasis

ABSTRACT

In various aspects, the present disclosure pertains to methods of treating or preventing bleeding at a tissue site comprising applying a chitosan powder composition to the tissue site, In various aspects, the present disclosure pertains to chitosan powder compositions for application to a tissue site, where the powder compositions comprise a chitosan salt, a crosslinked chitosan, a derivatized chitosan, or a combination thereof. In various aspects, the disclosure pertains to catheter assemblies, which are preloaded with a chitosan powder composition and which are configured to deliver the chitosan powder composition a tissue site.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No.62/616,751, filed Jan. 12, 2018, entitled “Powder for AchievingHemostasis,” the disclosure of which is hereby corporate by reference inits entirety.

BACKGROUND

Gastrointestinal bleeding affects millions of people annually. Certaincases of internal bleeding cannot be controlled effectively by currenthemostatic technologies such as clips, cautery, or band ligation.Wounds, surgical sites, diseased tissue, ulcer beds and gastric varices,among others, are locations where conventional means of hemostasis rayto fail, leading to extended hospital stay or death.

SUMMARY

In various aspects, the present disclosure pertains to methods oftreating or preventing bleeding at a tissue site comprising applying achitosan powder composition to the tissue site, wherein the chitosanpowder composition comprises a chitosan salt, a crosslinked chitosan, aderivatized chitosan, or a combination thereof.

In various embodiments, the tissue site may be a body lumen, for examplea site in the gastrointestinal tract. When the tissue site is a bodylumen, the chitosan powder may be applied, for example, via a catheteror other suitable device.

In various embodiments, which may be used in conjunction with the aboveaspects and embodiments, the powder r ay be fluidized in a gas (e.g.,CO₂, nitrogen, air, etc.) to form a fluidized powder and blown onto thetissue site. In such embodiments, the fluidized powder may exit thecatheter at a velocity ranging from 1.5 to 50 m/s, among other possiblevelocities.

In various aspects, the present disclosure pertains to powdercompositions for application to a tissue site, where the powdercompositions comprise first particles comprising chitosan, a chitosansalt or a derivatized chitosan admixed with second particles thatcomprise a crosslinking agent that covalently or non-covalentlyinteracts with the first particles upon exposure to moisture.

In some embodiments, the first particles may comprise a chitosan saltand the crosslinking agent may be a polyanionic crosslinking agent. Forexample, the first particles may comprise chitosan or a chitosan saltand the crosslinking agent may be a covalent crosslinking agent.Examples of covalent crosslinking agents include, for instance, amultifunctional epoxy, a multifunctional aldehyde, multifunctionalacrylate, genipin, or a derivatized polymer (e.g., an aldehydederivatized polymer, an epoxy derivatized polymer, acrylate derivatizedpolymer or a genipin derivatized polymer), among other possibilities.

In some embodiments, which may be used in conjunction with the aboveaspects and embodiments, the first particles may comprise a derivatizedchitosan and the second particles may comprise a covalent crosslinkingagent. In one particular example, the first particles may comprisethiol-modified chitosan and the second particles may comprise a moleculehaving a plurality of unsaturated groups.

In various aspects, the present disclosure pertains to powdercompositions for application to a tissue site that comprise derivatizedchitosan.

In some embodiments, the derivatized chitosan reacts with cysteinegroups in tissue upon exposure to moisture. For example, the derivatizedchitosan may be chitosan derivatized with a multifunctional aldehyde,the derivatized chitosan may be chitosan derivatized with amultifunctional epoxide, the derivatized chitosan may be chitosanderivatized with a multifunctional acrylate, or the derivatized chitosanmay be chitosan derivatized with genipin.

In some embodiments, which may be used in conjunction with the aboveaspects and embodiments, the derivatized chitosan may interact withthiol groups in tissue upon exposure to moisture.

In some embodiments, which may be used in conjunction with the aboveaspects and embodiments, the derivatized chitosan may be chitosanderivatized with unsaturated groups or the derivatized chitosan may bederivatized with thiol groups, among other possibilities.

In various aspects, the present disclosure pertains to powdercompositions for application to a tissue site that comprise a chitosansalt.

In some embodiments, the chitosan salt ionically crosslinks withnegative charged species in tissue or blood.

In various aspects, which may be used in conjunction with the aboveaspects and embodiments, the disclosure pertains to catheter assemblies,which are preloaded with a chitosan powder composition and which areconfigured to deliver the chitosan powder composition a tissue site.

These and other aspects and embodiments are further described in thedetailed description to follow.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In various aspects, the present disclosure pertains to methods oftreating a tissue site (e.g., a wound, a surgical site, a diseasedtissue site, an ulcer bed, a gastric varix, etc.), in which a chitosanpowder is applied to the tissue site. The chitosan powder may beapplied, for example, to address existing bleeding or to prevent orminimize future bleeding that may occur. In various embodiments, thetissue site is tissue that surrounds a body lumen, for example, a wallof the gastrointestinal tract. The chitosan powder may contain, forexample, chitosan, a chitosan salt, crosslinked chitosan, derivatizedchitosan, or natural or synthetic polymer blends containing the same. Asdiscussed in more detail below, in particular embodiments, the chitosanpowder may comprise, for example, a chitosan salt, a crosslinkedchitosan a derivatized chitosan or a combination thereof.

In various embodiments, the chitosan powder may be applied to a tissuesite via a catheter. Examples include catheter assemblies in which apowder may be fluidized in a gas (e.g., compressed air, nitrogen, carbondioxide, etc.) to form fluidized powder, which is then blown onto thetissue site. For example, a catheter assembly may be provided, whichincludes (a) a catheter having a lumen extending therethrough, aproximal end, and a distal end having an exit orifice, and (b) areservoir containing a chitosan powder. The catheter assembly may beconfigured to deliver the chitosan powder from the reservoir, throughthe lumen, and out the exit orifice. In certain embodiments, thecatheter assembly may include a pressurized reservoir that contains apressurized gas for delivering the chitosan powder from the reservoir,through the lumen, and out the exit orifice. For example, thepressurized reservoir may be positioned upstream of the reservoir andthe pressurized gas passed through the chitosan powder, therebyfluidizing the chitosan powder in the gas for deliver); of through thelumen and out the exit orifice. In certain embodiments, the catheter isoperated such that the fluidized powder exits the catheter at a velocityranging from 15 m/s to 50 m/s. Where applied to the gastrointestinaltract, the chitosan powder may be applied through an endoscope.

In various aspects, the present disclosure pertains to catheters thatare preloaded with a chitosan powder. For example, a system may beprovided, which includes a catheter having a proximal end and a distalend that is partially loaded with chitosan powder (with a remainingvolume being air). The catheter may also include a seal, such as a plug,cap, or other mechanism for retaining the chitosan powder on theproximal and distal ends of the catheter. The system may further beprovided with a mechanism for breaking the proximal seal and forapplying gas to the catheter at sufficient pressure to fluidize thepowder in the catheter, eject the distal seal, and disperse thefluidized chitosan powder from the distal end of the catheter and ontothe treatment site.

When applied to a tissue site, chitosan powder in accordance with thepresent disclosure acts as a barrier to bleeding associated with thetissue site. The chitosan powder acts as a barrier by absorbing liquids,which, for example, may be bodily fluids such as blood orgastrointestinal fluids (e.g., pancreatic juices, biliary fluid, saliva,etc.) that are present at the tissue site, or may be fluid such assaline, phosphate buffered saline, or contrast fluid that is applied tothe tissue site prior to, concurrently with, or subsequent toapplication of the chitosan powder. The chitosan powder may be used toachieve hemostasis at sites of active bleeding or can be used as apreventative over clipped areas, suture sites, or other having thepotential for bleeding, among other uses.

In various aspects, the present disclosure pertains to chitosan powders,that may be used to for hemostasis, among other possible uses.

Chitosan powders for use in the present disclosure may be of anysuitable particle size. In various embodiments, the particle size mayrange, for example, from less than 1 μm to 1000 μm (e.g., ranging from 1μm to 2.5 μm to 5 μm to 10 μm to 25 μm to 50 μm to 100 μm to 250 μm to500 μm to 1000 μm), among other possibilities. In this regard, achitosan powder having particles sized between 50 μm and 425 μm performswell when dispensed through an 8 French catheter.

As noted above, chitosan powder may contain, for example, chitosan, achitosan salt, derivatized chitosan, or crosslinked chitosan, and,optionally, a natural or synthetic polymer.

Chitosan is a modified polysaccharide containing randomly distributedβ-(1-4)-linked D-glucosamine and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine monomer units.Chitosan is produced commercially by the alkaline N-deacetylation ofchitin, which is a cellulose-like polymer consisting primarily ofunbranched chains of modified glucose, specificallyN-acetyl-D-glucosamine.

The degree of deacetylation in commercial chitosans typically rangesfrom 75 to 100% although essentially any degree of deacetylation ispossible. Chitosan is positively charged in acidic to neutral solutionswith a charge density that is dependent on the pH and the degree ofdeacetylation. The pka value of chitosan generally ranges from 6.1 to7.0, depending on the degree of deacetylation. Thus, while typicallysubstantially insoluble in distilled water, chitosan is generallysoluble in aqueous acidic solutions (e.g., pH ^(˜)6.5 or less).

Examples of chitosan salts include chitosan halides such as chitosanfluoride, chitosan chloride, chitosan bromide, chitosan iodide, chitosanphosphate, chitosan nitrate, chitosan sulfate, chitosan salts of organicmono-acids such as formate, acetate, propionate, butyrate, chitosansalts of organic diacids such as oxalate, malonate, succinate, maleate,or glutarate, or salts of hydro acids such as glycolate, lactate,tartrate, malate, citrate, or gluconate.

In various embodiments, modified chitosans may be employed, whichexhibit enhanced properties, including enhanced adhesion. For instance,a thiol-modified chitosan may be formed by reaction of chitosan with amolecule having one or more thiol groups and one or more additionalgroups (e.g., carboxylic acid groups, which may also be referred toherein as carboxyl groups) for bonding to the chitosan. In a specificexample, carboxylic acid groups of thiolactic acid may be reacted withprimary amine groups on the chitosan through suitable chemistry to forma covalent amide bond. For example, carbodiimide conjugation works byactivating carboxylic acid groups with a suitable carbodiimide, such as1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (EDC),dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC), N,N′-diisopropylcarbodiimide (DIC), fordirect conjugation to primary amines (e.g., primary amine groups on thechitosan) via amide bond formation. Similarly, carbonyldiimidazole (CDI)can be used in non-aqueous conditions to activate carboxylic acids fordirect conjugation to primary amines (e.g., primary amine groups on thechitosan) via amide bonds. The thiols on the modified chitosan canprovide enhanced attachment by interacting and forming covalent bondswith cysteine-rich tissue.

Other examples of modified chitosans include chitosan modified withgroups that allow for covalent reaction with tissue, including groupsthat are reactive with amine groups found in tissue. For example, amultifunctional (e.g., difunctional, trifunctional, etc.) reactivemolecule such as a multifunctional aldehyde molecule can be reacted withamine groups on chitosan to form aldehyde-modified chitosan (chitosanhaving pendant aldehyde groups). As another example, a multifunctional(e.g., difunctional, trifunctional, etc.) reactive molecule, such as amultifunctional epoxide molecule, can be reacted with amine groups onchitosan to form epoxy-modified chitosan chitosan having pendant epoxidegroups). As another example, a multifunctional (e.g., difunctional,trifunctional, etc.) reactive molecule, such as a multifunctionalacrylate molecule or another molecule having one or more groups thatreact with chitosan and has at least one acrylate group such as PEGdiacrylate, can be reacted with thiol groups on thiol modified chitosanvia michael addition click reaction under body temperature inphysiological pH conditions to form a chitosan-PEG crosslinked network(i.e., chitosan-PEG crosslinked gel having excess pendant thiol groupsamendable to covalently linking to tissue). As another example, amultifunctional (e.g., difunctional, trifunctional, etc.) reactivemolecule, such as genipin, can be reacted with amine groups on chitosanto form genipin-modified chitosan (i.e., chitosan having pendant genipingroups). In certain specific embodiments, the multifunctional reactivemolecule (e.g., multifunctional aldehyde molecule, a multifunctionalepoxide molecule, or genipin) may be reacted with chitosan in relativeamounts such that multifunctional reactive molecule is provided in a lxmolar minimum relative to the number of moles of amine groups on thechitosan, such that all or essentially all of the amine groups arereacted and have pendant reactive groups.

Example of multifunctional aldehydes include glutaraldehyde, glyoxal,and aldehyde terminated hydrophilic polymers. Example of multifunctionalepoxides include 4-butanediol diglycidyl ether, ethylene glycoldiglycidyl ether, and epoxide terminated hydrophilic polymers.Hydrophilic polymers which may be provided with aldehyde or epoxidetermination include poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), also referred to aspoly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyacrylamide, poly(acrylic acid), andpoly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (PHEMA). Suitable hydrophilic polymersmay range, for example, from 2 to 250 monomers in length, among otherpossibilities.

In certain specific embodiments, a modified chitosan may be formed byreacting a reactive synthetic molecule such as PEG diepoxide or a PEGdialdehyde with chitosan in relative amounts such that the reactivemolecule is provided in a 1× molar minimum relative to the number ofmoles of amine groups on the chitosan, such that all or essentially allof the amine groups of the chitosan are reacted and have pendantepoxide-terminated PEG groups or aldehyde-terminated PEG groups.

In some embodiments, the chitosan may be directly oxidized, therebyforming aldehyde groups on the chitosan.

In some embodiments, a chitosan powder may be employed in whichchitosan, chitosan salt, modified chitosan, or a combination thereof, isnon-covalently crosslinked or covalently crosslinked, either beforeapplication to a tissue site, or at the time of application to a tissuesite.

For instance, in some embodiments, an ionic crosslinker such as amultifunctional anionic molecule having two or more anionic groups(e.g., carboxylic acid groups, or sulfonate groups) may be provided inorder to ionically crosslink the chitosan via positively charged aminegroups located on the chitosan. Examples of multifunctional anionicmolecules include organic diacids such as oxalate, malonate, succinate,maleate, or glutarate, or salts of hydroxyacids such as tartrate,malate, or citrate. Examples of multifunctional anionic molecules alsoinclude polyanionic polymers.

In some embodiments, the multifunctional anionic molecule is combinedand ionically crosslinked with the chitosan prior to applying to tissue,grinding the crosslinked product into a powder if desired or necessary.In some embodiments, the multifunctional anionic molecule is ionicallycrosslinked on the tissue surface. For example, a multifunctionalanionic molecule (e.g., citric acid, among others) may be combined withchitosan in powder form and the mixture applied to tissue. When thismixture contacts a moisture rich environment (e.g., provided by bodyfluid and/or a separately applied fluid), liquid will be absorbed andthe powder constituents will dissolve and crosslink, creating a firmermore cohesive gel with less particulate over the application site.

In some embodiments, chitosan or modified chitosan may be covalentlycrosslinked prior to administration, and subsequently applied to tissue.For instance, chitosan or modified chitosan may be reacted with amultifunctional molecule having two or more groups (e.g., carboxylicacid groups, amine groups, epoxy groups, or aldehyde groups) that arereactive with the chitosan (e.g., reactive with the amine groups on thechitosan or carboxymethyl groups on the modified chitosan). For example,a biocompatible hydrophilic polymer (e.g., one the hydrophilic polymerslisted above, among others) having terminal carboxylic acid groups maybe reacted with primary amine groups on the chitosan through anysuitable chemistry (e.g., using carbodiimide or carbonyldiimidazolechemistry) in order to covalently crosslink the chitosan. In onespecific embodiment, carboxylic acid groups of a PEG dicarboxylate maybe reacted with amine groups of chitosan using carbodiimide orcarbonyldiimidazole chemistry, thereby covalently crosslinking thechitosan. As another example, a derivatized chitosan (e.g., a chitosanderivatized with carboxylic acid groups) is crosslinked with abiocompatible hydrophilic polymer (e.g., one the hydrophilic polymerslisted above, among others) having terminal amine groups through anysuitable chemistry (e.g., using carbodiimide or carbonyldiimidazolechemistry) in order to covalently crosslink the chitosan. In onespecific embodiment, amine groups of a PEG diamine may be reacted withcarboxylic acid groups of carboxymethyl chitosan using carbodiimide orcarbonyldiimidazole chemistry, thereby covalently crosslinking thechitosan. The resulting product is subsequently applied to tissue, aftergrinding the product into a powder, if desired or necessary. This shouldgenerally improve the overall structural integrity of the powder.

In some embodiments, a chitosan powder is provided, which becomecovalently crosslinked upon administration to tissue.

For example, a first powder comprising a multifunctional (e.g.,difunctional, trifunctional, etc.) reactive molecule that reacts withamines, for example, genipin, a multifunctional aldehyde molecule, or amultifunctional epoxide molecule, such as those described above (e.g.,PEG diepoxide, PEG dialdehyde or any small molecule dialdehyde or smallmolecule diepoxide that is a solid), may be admixed with chitosan or achitosan salt powder and applied to tissue in dry form. In certainembodiments, the multifunctional reactive molecule is a modifiedchitosan such as those described above, which may be selected, forexample, from the aldehyde-modified chitosan (chitosan having pendantaldehyde groups), epoxy-modified chitosan (i.e., chitosan having pendantepoxide groups) and genipin-modified chitosan (i.e., chitosan havingpendant genipin groups) described above. Once the admixed powder becomeswet (e.g., due to body fluid and/or application of a fluid), the powderconstituents dissolve, allowing the multifunctional reactive molecule tocrosslink with amines found on the chitosan or the chitosan salt, and toalso react with amines found in tissue.

As another example, a first powder comprising a thiol-modified chitosansuch as that described above may be admixed a second powder thatcomprises a molecule that comprises two or more unsaturated groups andapplied to tissue in dry form. Examples of molecules that comprises twoor more unsaturated groups include acrylate-terminated hydrophilicpolymers. Hydrophilic polymers which may be provided with unsaturatedtermination include those hydrophilic polymers described above. Aparticular example of a molecule that comprises two or more unsaturatedgroups is PEG diacrylate. Applying such a powder to tissue andsubsequently mixing with saline in situ will follow a Michael additionreaction scheme. At body temperature and the pH of saline (7,4) the twopowders crosslink to form a cohesive patch. In certain embodiments, thefirst powder or the second powder may include a catalyst, such as a baseor a nucleophile).

Various further aspects of the present disclosure are provided in thefollowing enumerated paragraphs:

Aspect A1. A method of treating or preventing bleeding at a tissue sitecomprising: applying chitosan powder to the tissue site, wherein thechitosan powder comprises a chitosan salt, a crosslinked chitosan, aderivatized chitosan, or a combination thereof.

Aspect A2. The method of aspect A1, wherein the tissue site is in a bodylumen.

Aspect A3. The method of aspect A2, wherein the body lumen is thegastrointestinal tract.

Aspect A4. The method of any of aspects A1-A3, wherein the chitosanpowder is applied via a catheter.

Aspect A5. The method of any of aspects A1-A4, wherein the powder isfluidized in a gas to form a fluidized powder and blown onto the tissuesite.

Aspect A6. The method of aspect A6, wherein the fluidized gas is CO₂.

Aspect A7. The method of any aspects A6-A7, wherein the fluidized powderexits the catheter at a velocity ranging from 15 to 50 m/s.

Aspect B1. A preloaded catheter assembly comprising: a catheter having alumen extending therethrough, a proximal end, and a distal end having anexit orifice, a reservoir comprising a chitosan powder, wherein thecatheter assembly is configured to deliver the chitosan powder from thereservoir, through the lumen, and out the exit orifice.

Aspect B2. The preloaded catheter of aspect B1, wherein the catheterassembly further comprises a pressurized reservoir comprising apressurized gas for delivering the chitosan powder from the reservoir,through the lumen, and out the exit orifice.

Aspect B3. The preloaded catheter of aspect B2, wherein the pressurizedreservoir is positioned upstream of the reservoir and the pressurizedgas passes through the chitosan powder, thereby fluidizing the chitosanpowder in gas for delivery of through the lumen and out the exitorifice.

Aspect B4. The preloaded catheter of aspect B1, the chitosan powdercomprises chitosan, a chitosan salt, crosslinked chitosan, derivatizedchitosan, or a combination thereof.

Aspect C1. A powder composition for application to a tissue site, thepowder composition comprising first particles comprising chitosan, achitosan salt or a derivatized chitosan admixed with second particlesthat comprise a crosslinking agent that covalently or non-covalentlyinteracts with the first particles upon exposure to moisture.

Aspect C2. The composition of aspect C1, wherein the first particlescomprise a chitosan salt.

Aspect C3. The composition of aspect C2, wherein the crosslinking agentis a polyanionic crosslinking agent.

Aspect C4. The composition of aspect C1, wherein the first particlescomprise chitosan or a chitosan salt and the crosslinking agent is acovalent crosslinking agent.

Aspect C5. The composition of aspect C4, wherein the covalentcrosslinking agent is selected from a multifunctional epoxy, amultifunctional aldehyde, and genipin.

Aspect C6. The composition of aspect C4, wherein the covalentcrosslinking agent is a derivatized polymer.

Aspect C7. The composition of aspect C6, wherein the derivatized polymeris selected from an aldehyde derivatized polymer, epoxy derivatizedpolymer, and a genipin derivatized polymer.

Aspect C8. The composition of aspect C6, wherein the derivatized polymeris derivatized chitosan.

Aspect C9. The composition of aspect C8, wherein the derivatizedchitosan selected from aldehyde derivatized chitosan, epoxy derivatizedchitosan, and genipin derivatized chitosan.

Aspect C10. The composition of aspect C1, wherein the first particlescomprise a derivatized chitosan.

Aspect C11. The composition of aspect C10, wherein the second particlescomprise a covalent crosslinking agent.

Aspect C12. The composition of aspect C11, wherein the covalentcrosslinking agent is a polymeric crosslinking agent.

Aspect C13. The composition of aspect C10, wherein the first particlescomprise thiol-modified chitosan and the second particles comprise amolecule having a plurality of unsaturated groups.

Aspect C14. The composition of aspect C13, wherein the molecule having aplurality of unsaturated groups is a hydrophilic polymer havingunsaturated end groups.

Aspect D1. A powder composition for application to a tissue site, thepowder composition comprising chitosan crosslinked with amultifunctional carboxylated polymer.

Aspect D2. The composition of aspect D1, wherein the carboxylatedpolymer is a hydrophilic polymer having carboxylic acid end groups.

Aspect D3. The composition of aspect D1 or D2, chitosan is crosslinkedwith the multifunctional carboxylated polymer using a diimide coupling.

Aspect E1. A powder composition for application to a tissue site, thepowder composition comprising derivatized chitosan.

Aspect E2. The powder of aspect E1, wherein the derivatized chitosanreacts with tissue upon exposure to moisture.

Aspect E3. The powder of aspect E1, wherein the derivatized chitosanreacts with primary amine groups in tissue upon exposure to moisture.

Aspect E4. The powder of aspect E2, wherein the derivatized chitosan ischitosan derivatized with a multifuctional aldehyde.

Aspect E5. The powder of aspect E2, wherein the derivatized chitosan ischitosan derivatized with a multifunctional epoxide.

Aspect E6. The powder of aspect E2, wherein the derivatized chitosan ischitosan derivatized with genipin.

Aspect E7. The powder of aspect E1, wherein the derivatized chitosaninteracts with thiol groups in tissue upon exposure to moisture.

Aspect E8. The powder of aspect E7, wherein the derivatized chitosan ischitosan derivatized with unsaturated groups.

Aspect E9. The powder of aspect E7, wherein the derivatized chitosan isderivatized with thiol groups.

Aspect E10. The powder of aspect E9, wherein the chitosan is derivatizedwith a compound comprising a carboxylic acid group and a thiol group.

Aspect E11. The powder of aspect E10, wherein the chitosan isderivatized using diimide (e.g., EDC or DCC) coupling.

EXAMPLE

Chitosan obtained from Sigma Aldrich is suspended in water at aconcentration of 2 wt % Chitosan and 98 wt % water. The mixture isstirred using a mechanical mixer at room temperature. Acetic acid isthen added during the stirring such that the pH levels out near 5.0after 5 hours of stirring. 2 wt % citric acid (relative to the weight ofchitosan initially used) is added to the container and mixed for anadditional 5 hours. This process forms a gel which is subsequentlydried. The dried gel is then ground into a fine powder for use.

1-20. (canceled)
 21. A composition comprising: first particles comprising chitosan derivatized with a multifunctional aldehyde; and second particles comprising a covalent crosslinking agent; wherein the composition is in the form of a powder.
 22. The composition of claim 21, wherein the chitosan derivatized with the multifunctional aldehyde comprises pendant aldehyde groups.
 23. The composition of claim 21, wherein the multifunctional aldehyde comprises glutaraldehyde, glyoxal, or an aldehyde terminated hydrophilic polymer.
 24. The composition of claim 23, wherein the multifunctional aldehyde comprises the aldehyde terminated hydrophilic polymer, and wherein the aldehyde terminated hydrophilic polymer comprises poly(ethylene glycol), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, polyacrylamide, poly(acrylic acid), or poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate.
 25. The composition of claim 21, wherein the multifunctional aldehyde is poly(ethylene glycol) dialdehyde.
 26. The composition of claim 21, wherein the covalent crosslinking agent is a polymeric crosslinking agent.
 27. The composition of claim 21, wherein the covalent crosslinking agent comprises a multifunctional molecule having two or more functional groups.
 28. The composition of claim 27, wherein the covalent crosslinking agent is a biocompatible hydrophilic polymer having terminal carboxylic acid groups.
 29. The composition of claim 27, wherein the two or more functional groups include carboxylic acid groups, amine groups, epoxy groups, and/or aldehyde groups.
 30. The composition of claim 21, wherein the first particles have a size ranging from 100 μm to 500 μm.
 31. A method of treating or preventing bleeding at a tissue site comprising applying the composition of claim 21 to the tissue site via a catheter, wherein the tissue site is tissue of a gastrointestinal tract.
 32. The method of claim 31, wherein the composition is fluidized in a gas to form a fluidized powder and blown onto the tissue site.
 33. The method of claim 32, wherein the gas is CO2.
 34. The method of claim 32, wherein the fluidized powder exits the catheter at a velocity ranging from 15 m/s to 50 m/s.
 35. The method of claim 31, wherein the composition is applied to the tissue site via the catheter through an endoscope.
 36. A composition comprising: first particles comprising chitosan derivatized with a multifunctional aldehyde; and second particles comprising a covalent crosslinking agent, wherein the cross-linking agent comprises a multifunctional polymer comprising two or more functional groups chosen from carboxylic acid groups, amine groups, epoxy groups, aldehyde groups, or combinations thereof; wherein the composition is in the form of a powder.
 37. The composition of claim 36, wherein the chitosan derivatized with a multifunctional aldehyde comprises chitosan derivatized with glutaraldehyde, chitosan derivatized with glyoxal, or chitosan derivatized with an aldehyde terminated hydrophilic polymer.
 38. The composition of claim 37, wherein the aldehyde terminated hydrophilic polymer is approximately 2 monomers to 250 monomers in length.
 39. A method of treating or preventing bleeding at a tissue site, the method comprising administering a composition to the tissue site, wherein the composition is in the form of a powder and comprises: first particles comprising chitosan derivatized with a multifunctional aldehyde; and second particles comprising a covalent crosslinking agent, wherein the covalent crosslinking agent comprises a multifunctional polymer comprising two or more functional groups chosen from carboxylic acid groups, amine groups, epoxy groups, aldehyde groups, or combinations thereof.
 40. The method of claim 39, wherein the covalent crosslinking agent is a biocompatible hydrophilic polymer having terminal amine groups. 